<p>I once saw a Muhammadan at Tumkur in Mysore, whither he had
journeyed from Hyderabad, who had a rupee tied round his arm in token
of a vow that, if he returned safe from plague and other ills to his
own country, he would give money in charity. When a Muhammadan falls
ill, a rupee and a quarter is sometimes done up in a red cloth, and
tied round the arm, to be given to the poor on recovery. Members of the
poorer classes tie an anna and a quarter in like manner, after
performing a fateha ceremony. Should the sickness of a Hindu be
attributed to a god or goddess, a vow is made, in token whereof a
copper or silver coin is wrapped up in a piece of cloth dipped in
turmeric paste, and kept in the house, or tied to the neck or arm of
the sick person. A cock may be waved round the head of the patient, and
afterwards reared in the house, to be eventually offered up at the
shrine of the deity. A Bēdar, whom I saw at Hospet in the Bellary
district, had a quarter anna rolled up in cotton cloth, which he wore
on the upper arm in performance of a vow.</p>
<p>In an account of the cock festival at Cranganore in Malabar, whereat
vast numbers of cocks are sacrificed, Mr Gopal Panikkar
records<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2960src" href="#xd20e2960" name="xd20e2960src">55</SPAN> that, “when a man is taken ill of any
infectious disease, his relations generally pray to the goddess (at
Cranganore) for his recovery, solemnly covenanting to perform what goes
by the name of a thulabhāram (or thulupurushadānam)<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2963src" href="#xd20e2963" name="xd20e2963src">56</SPAN> ceremony. <span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb172"
href="#pb172" name="pb172">172</SPAN>]</span>This consists in placing the
patient in one of the scale-pans of a huge balance, and weighing him
against gold, or, more generally, pepper (and sometimes other
substances), deposited in the other scale-pan. Then this weight of the
substance is offered to the goddess. This has to be performed right in
front of the goddess in the temple yard.”</p>
<p>At Mulki in South Canara there is a temple of Venkatēswara,
which is maintained by Konkani Brāhmans. A Konkani Brāhman,
who is attached to the temple, becomes inspired almost daily between 10
and 11 <span class="sc">A.M.</span>, immediately after worship, and
people consult him. Some time ago, a rich merchant from Gujarat
consulted the inspired man as to what steps should be taken to enable
his wife to be safely delivered. He was told to take a vow that he
would present to the god of the temple, silver, sugar-candy, and date
fruits, equal in weight to that of his wife<span class="corr" id="xd20e2973" title="Source: ,">.</span> This he did, and his wife was
delivered of a male child. The cost of the ceremonial is said to have
been five thousand rupees. In the thulabhāram ceremony as
performed by the Mahārājas of Travancore,<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2976src" href="#xd20e2976" name="xd20e2976src">57</SPAN> they are
weighed against gold coins, called thulabhāra kāsu, specially
struck for the occasion, which are divided among the priests who
performed the ceremony, and Brāhmans.</p>
<p>The following quaint custom, which is observed at the village of
Pullambadi in the Trichinopoly district, is described by Bishop
Whitehead.<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2983src" href="#xd20e2983" name="xd20e2983src">58</SPAN></p>
<div class="blockquote">
<p class="first">“The goddess Kulanthal Amman has established for
herself a useful reputation as a settler of debts. When a creditor
cannot recover a debt, he writes down his claim on a scroll of
palm-leaves, and offers the goddess a <span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb173" href="#pb173" name="pb173">173</SPAN>]</span>part of the debt, if
it is paid. The palmyra scroll is hung up on an iron spear in the
compound of the temple before the shrine. If the claim is just, and the
debtor does not pay, it is believed that he will be afflicted with
sickness and bad dreams. In his dreams he will be told to pay the debt
at once, if he wishes to be freed from his misfortunes. If, however,
the debtor disputes the claim, he draws up a counter-statement, and
hangs it on the same spear. Then the deity decides which claim is true,
and afflicts with sickness and bad dreams the man whose claim is false.
When a claim is acknowledged, the debtor brings the money, and gives it
to the pūjāri, who places it before the image of Kulanthal
Amman, and sends word to the creditor. The whole amount is then handed
over to the creditor, who pays the sum vowed to the goddess into the
temple coffers in April or May. So great is the reputation of the
goddess, that Hindus come from about ten miles round to seek her aid in
recovering their debts. The goddess may sometimes make mistakes, but,
at any rate, it is cheaper than an appeal to an ordinary court of law,
and probably almost as effective as a means of securing justice. In
former times, no written statements were presented; people simply came
and represented their claims by word of mouth to the deity, promising
to give her a share. The custom of presenting written claims sprang up
about thirty years ago, doubtless through the influence of the Civil
Courts. Apparently more debts have been collected since this was done,
and more money has been gathered into the treasury.”</p>
</div>
<p>It is noted by the Rev. A. Margöschis<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2996src" href="#xd20e2996" name="xd20e2996src">59</SPAN> that
“the Hindus observe a special day at the commencement of the
palmyra season (in Tinnevelly), when the jaggery season begins. Bishop
Caldwell adopted the custom, and a solemn service in church was held,
when one set <span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb174" href="#pb174" name="pb174">174</SPAN>]</span>of all the implements used in the occupation of
palmyra-climbing was brought to the church, and presented at the altar.
Only the day was changed from that observed by the Hindus. The perils
of the palmyra-climber are great, and there are many fatal accidents by
falling from trees forty to sixty feet high, so that a religious
service of the kind was particularly acceptable and peculiarly
appropriate to our people.”</p>
<p>The story is told by Bishop Caldwell of a Shānar (toddy-drawer)
who was sitting upon a leaf-stalk at the top of a palmyra palm in a
high wind, when the stalk gave way, and he came down to the ground
safely and quietly sitting on the leaf, which served the purpose of a
natural parachute.</p>
<p>The festival of Ayudha Pūja (worship of tools or implements) is
observed by all Hindu castes during the last three days of the Dasara
or Navarathri in the month of Purattasi (September-October). It is a
universal holiday for all Hindu workmen. Even the Brāhman takes
part in this pūja. His tools, however, being books, it is called
Saraswati pūja, or worship to the goddess or god of learning, who
is either Saraswati or Hayagriva. Reading books and repetition of
Vēdas must be done, and, for the purpose of worship, all the books
in a house are piled up in a heap. Non-Brāhmans clean the various
implements used by them in their daily work, and worship them. The
Kammālans (artisans) clean their hammers, pincers, anvil,
blowpipe, etc.; the Chettis (merchants) clean their scales and weights,
and the box into which they put their money. The racket-marker at the
Madras Club decorates the entrance to the scoring-box in which his
rackets are kept, with a festoon of mango leaves. The weaving and
agricultural classes will be seen to be busy with their looms and
agricultural <span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb175" href="#pb175" name="pb175">175</SPAN>]</span>implements. Fishermen pile up their nets for
worship. Even the bandywala (cart-driver) paints red and white stripes
on the wheels and axles. I have myself been profusely garlanded when
present as a guest at the elaborate tool-worshipping ceremony at the
Madras School of Arts, where pūja was done to a bust of the late
Bishop Gell set up on an improvised altar, with a cast of Saraswati
above, and various members of the Hindu Pantheon around.</p>
<p>At the festival held by the Koyis of the Godāvari district in
propitiation of a goddess called Pida, very frequently offerings
promised long before are sacrificed, and eaten by the pujāri. It
is not at all uncommon for a Koyi to promise to offer a seven-horned
male (<i>i.e.</i> a cock) as a bribe to be let alone, a two-horned male
(<i>i.e.</i> a goat) being set apart by more wealthy or more fervent
suppliants.<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3016src" href="#xd20e3016" name="xd20e3016src">60</SPAN> When smallpox or other epidemic disease breaks
out in a Gadaba village in Vizagapatam, a little go-cart on wheels is
constructed. In this a clay image, or anything else holy, is placed,
and it is taken to a distant spot, and left there. It is also the
custom, when cholera or smallpox is epidemic in the same district, to
make a little car, “on which are placed a grain of
saffron-stained<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3022src" href="#xd20e3022"
name="xd20e3022src">61</SPAN> rice for every soul in the village, and
numerous offerings such as little swings, pots, knives, ploughs, and
the like, and the blood of certain sacrificial victims, and this is
then dragged with due ceremony to the boundary of the village. By this
means the malignant essence of the deity who brings smallpox or cholera
is transferred across the boundary. The neighbouring villagers
naturally hasten to move the car on with similar ceremony, and
<span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb176" href="#pb176" name="pb176">176</SPAN>]</span>it is thus dragged through a whole series of
villages, and eventually left by the roadside in some lonely
spot.”<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3034src" href="#xd20e3034"
name="xd20e3034src">62</SPAN></p>
<p>Marching on one occasion, towards Hampi in the Bellary district,
where an outbreak of cholera had recently occurred, I came across two
wooden gods on wheels by the roadside, to whom had been offered baskets
of fruit, vegetables, earthen pots, bead necklets, and bangles, which
were piled up in front of them. It is recorded<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3039src" href="#xd20e3039" name="xd20e3039src">63</SPAN> by Bishop
Whitehead that, when an epidemic breaks out in a certain village in the
Telugu country,</p>
<div class="blockquote">
<p class="first">“the headman of the village gets a new
earthenware pot, besmears it with turmeric and kunkuma (red powder),
and puts inside it some clay bracelets, necklaces, and earrings, three
pieces of charcoal, three pieces of turmeric, three pieces of incense,
a piece of dried cocoanut, a woman’s cloth, and two annas worth
of coppers—a strange collection of miscellaneous charms and
offerings. The pot is then hung up on a tree near the image of the
village deity, as a pledge that, if the epidemic disappears, the people
will celebrate a festival.”</p>
</div>
<p>It is further recorded<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3050src" href="#xd20e3050" name="xd20e3050src">64</SPAN> by Bishop Whitehead that,
during the festival of Māriamma at Kannanur in the Trichinopoly
district, “many people who have made vows bring sheep, goats,
fowls, pigeons, parrots, cows, and calves, to the temple, and leave
them in the compound alive. At the end of the festival, these animals
are all sold to a contractor. Two years ago, they fetched Rs.
400—a good haul for the temple.”</p>
<p>Between the Madras museum and the Government <span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb177" href="#pb177" name="pb177">177</SPAN>]</span>maternity hospital, a small municipal boundary
stone has been set up by the side of the road. To this stone
supernatural powers are attributed, and it is alleged that in a banyan
tree in a private garden close by a Mūni lives, who presides over
the welfare of the patients in the hospital, and must be propitiated if
the pregnant woman is to get over her confinement without
complications. Women vow that they will, if all goes well, give a
cocoanut, betel, or flowers when they leave. Discharged patients can be
seen daily, going to the stone and making offerings. On the day of
their discharge, their friends bring camphor and other articles, and
the whole family goes to the stone, where the camphor is burnt, a
cocoanut broken, and perhaps some turmeric or flowers placed on it. The
new-born child is placed on the bare ground in front of the stone, and
the mother, kneeling down, bows before it. The foreheads of both mother
and child are marked with the soots from the burning camphor. If her
friends do not bring the requisite articles, the woman goes home, and
returns with them to do pūja to the stone, or it is celebrated at
a temple or her house. The offerings are removed by those who present
them, or by passers-by on the road.</p>
<p>The Kudubi cutch (catechu) makers of South Canara, before the
commencement of operations, select an <i>Areca Catechu</i> tree, and
place a sword, an axe, and a cocoanut on the ground near it. They
prostrate themselves before the tree, with hands uplifted, burn
incense, and break cocoanuts. The success of the operations is believed
to depend on the good-will of a deity named Siddēdēvaru.
Before they commence work, the Kudubis make a vow that, if they are
successful, they will offer a fowl.</p>
<div class="blockquote">
<p class="first">“A palmyra tree in the jungle near Ramnād
with seven distinct trunks, each bearing a goodly head of <span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb178" href="#pb178" name="pb178">178</SPAN>]</span>fan-shaped leaves is,” General Burton
writes,<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3069src" href="#xd20e3069" name="xd20e3069src">65</SPAN> “attributed to the action of a deity, and
stones smeared with oil and vermilion, broken cocoanuts, and
fowl’s feathers lying about, testify that pūja and sacrifice
were performed here.”</p>
</div>
<p>On the Rangasvāmi peak on the Nīlgiris are two rude walled
enclosures sacred to the god Ranga and his consort, within which are
deposited various offerings, chiefly iron lamps and the notched sticks
used as weighing-machines. The hereditary priest is an Irula (jungle
tribesman).<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3075src" href="#xd20e3075" name="xd20e3075src">66</SPAN> Certain caves are regarded by the Muduvars of the
Travancore hills as shrines, wherein spear-heads, tridents, and copper
coins are placed, partly to mark them as holy places, and partly as
offerings to bring good luck.</p>
<p>Prehistoric stone cells, found in the bed of a river, are believed
to be the thunderbolts of Vishnu, and are stacked as offerings by the
Malaiālis of the Shevaroy hills in their shrines dedicated to
Vignēswara the elephant god, who averts evil, or in little niches
cut in rocks.</p>
<p>Of a remarkable form of demon worship in Tinnevelly, Bishop Caldwell
wrote that<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3082src" href="#xd20e3082" name="xd20e3082src">67</SPAN> “an European was till recently worshipped
as a demon. From the rude verses which were sung in connection with his
worship, it would appear that he was an English officer, who was
mortally wounded at the taking of the Travancore lines in 1809, and was
buried about twenty-five miles from the scene of the battle in a sandy
waste, where, a few years ago, his worship was established by the
Shānāns of the neighbourhood. His worship consisted in the
offering to his manes of spirituous liquors and cheroots.”</p>
<p>A similar form of worship, or propitiation of demons, <span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb179" href="#pb179" name="pb179">179</SPAN>]</span>is
recorded<SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3089src" href="#xd20e3089" name="xd20e3089src">68</SPAN> by Bishop Whitehead from Malabar. He was told
that “the spirits of the old Portuguese soldiers and traders are
still propitiated on the coast with offerings of toddy and cheroots.
The spirits are called Kāppiri (probably Kaffirs or foreigners).
This superstition is dying out, but is said to be common among the
fishermen of the French settlement of Mai (Mahé).”</p>
<p>On one occasion, a man who had been presented with two annas as the
fee for lending his body to me for measurement, offered it, with
flowers and a cocoanut, at the shrine of the village goddess, and
dedicated to her another coin of his own as a peace-offering, and to
get rid of the pollution caused by my money. <span class="pagenum">[<SPAN id="pb180" href="#pb180" name="pb180">180</SPAN>]</span></p>
<hr class="fnsep">
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2466" href="#xd20e2466src" name="xd20e2466">1</SPAN></span> See
Bishop Whitehead, “The Village Deities of Southern India,”
<i>Madras Museum Bull.</i>, 1907, v. No. 3.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2475" href="#xd20e2475src" name="xd20e2475">2</SPAN></span>
<i>Ibid.</i>, 1901, iii. No. 3, 270–1.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2487" href="#xd20e2487src" name="xd20e2487">3</SPAN></span>
”<span class="corr" id="xd20e2489" title=
"Source: Gazetter">Gazetteer</span> of the Tanjore District,”
1906, i. 219.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2494" href="#xd20e2494src" name="xd20e2494">4</SPAN></span>
<i>Madras Dioc. Mag.</i>, November, 1910.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2499" href="#xd20e2499src" name="xd20e2499">5</SPAN></span>
<i>See</i> Fawcett, Note on the Mouth-lock Vow, <i>Journ. Anthrop.
Soc., Bombay</i>, i. 97–102.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2512" href="#xd20e2512src" name="xd20e2512">6</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly District,” 1907, i. 289.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2515" href="#xd20e2515src" name="xd20e2515">7</SPAN></span>
<i>Scottish Standard Bearer</i>, November 1907.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2533" href="#xd20e2533src" name="xd20e2533">8</SPAN></span> The
Patnulkārans claim to be Saurāshtra Brāhmans.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2536" href="#xd20e2536src" name="xd20e2536">9</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Tanjore District,” 1906, i. 71.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2539" href="#xd20e2539src" name="xd20e2539">10</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Madura District,” i. 86.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2544" href="#xd20e2544src" name="xd20e2544">11</SPAN></span>
“Primitive Tribes of the Nilagiris,” 1873, 17.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2555" href="#xd20e2555src" name="xd20e2555">12</SPAN></span>
Sūdra is the fourth traditional caste of Manu.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2558" href="#xd20e2558src" name="xd20e2558">13</SPAN></span>
“Manual of the North Arcot District,” 1895, i. 242.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2561" href="#xd20e2561src" name="xd20e2561">14</SPAN></span>
<i>Mysore Census Report</i>, 1901, part i. 519.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2573" href="#xd20e2573src" name="xd20e2573">15</SPAN></span> Basavi,
<i>see</i> article “Dēva-dāsi” in my
“Castes and Tribes of Southern India,” 1909, ii.
125–53.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2581" href="#xd20e2581src" name="xd20e2581">16</SPAN></span>
“Manual of the Cuddapah District<span class="corr" id="xd20e2583"
title="Not in source">”</span>, 1875, 283.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2590" href="#xd20e2590src" name="xd20e2590">17</SPAN></span>
<i>Madras Museum Bull.</i>, 1907, v. No. 3, 149.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2609" href="#xd20e2609src" name="xd20e2609">18</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly District,” 1907, i. 289.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2612" href="#xd20e2612src" name="xd20e2612">19</SPAN></span>
Jeypore, Breklum, 1901.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2618" href="#xd20e2618src" name="xd20e2618">20</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Tanjore District,” 1906, 1. 72.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2621" href="#xd20e2621src" name="xd20e2621">21</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Madura District,” 1906, i.
86–7.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2624" href="#xd20e2624src" name="xd20e2624">22</SPAN></span>
<i>Ibid.</i>, 86.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2643" href="#xd20e2643src" name="xd20e2643">23</SPAN></span>
<i>Madras Museum Bull.</i>, 1906, v., No. 2, 78–9.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2677" href="#xd20e2677src" name="xd20e2677">24</SPAN></span>
<i>Madras Museum Bull.</i>, 1907, v., No. 3, 149.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2685" href="#xd20e2685src" name="xd20e2685">25</SPAN></span>
“Ind. Ant.,” 1881, x. 364.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2693" href="#xd20e2693src" name="xd20e2693">26</SPAN></span> The
Pallis claim to be descendants of the fire race (Agnikula) of the
Kshatriyas, and that, as they and the Pāndava brothers were born
of fire, they are related.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2698" href="#xd20e2698src" name="xd20e2698">27</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the South Arcot District,” 1906, i.
375–6.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2713" href="#xd20e2713src" name="xd20e2713">28</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Madura District,” 1906, i. 85.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2724" href="#xd20e2724src" name="xd20e2724">29</SPAN></span>
“Narrative of Little’s Detachment,” 1794,
212–3.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2727" href="#xd20e2727src" name="xd20e2727">30</SPAN></span>
Lambādis or Brinjāris, who formerly acted as carriers of
supplies and baggage in times of war in the Deccan.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2736" href="#xd20e2736src" name="xd20e2736">31</SPAN></span>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay</i>, i. 253–4.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2741" href="#xd20e2741src" name="xd20e2741">32</SPAN></span>
“Ind. Ant.,” 1879, viii. 219.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2744" href="#xd20e2744src" name="xd20e2744">33</SPAN></span>
<i>Ibid.</i>, 1880, ix. 150.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2752" href="#xd20e2752src" name="xd20e2752">34</SPAN></span>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay</i>, ii. 272.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2765" href="#xd20e2765src" name="xd20e2765">35</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Madura District,” 1906, i. 86.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2768" href="#xd20e2768src" name="xd20e2768">36</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the South Arcot District,” 1906, i. 102.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2775" href="#xd20e2775src" name="xd20e2775">37</SPAN></span>
“Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies” translation by H.
K. Beauchamp, 1897, ii. 610.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2780" href="#xd20e2780src" name="xd20e2780">38</SPAN></span>
“Ind. Ant.,” 1880, ix. 152.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2788" href="#xd20e2788src" name="xd20e2788">39</SPAN></span>
“Mysore,” 1897, ii. 350.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2827" href="#xd20e2827src" name="xd20e2827">40</SPAN></span>
<i>Madras Museum Bull.</i>, 1901, iii., No. 3, 266.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2840" href="#xd20e2840src" name="xd20e2840">41</SPAN></span> The
making of a shrine, <i>Calcutta Review</i>, 1899, cviii.
173–5.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2850" href="#xd20e2850src" name="xd20e2850">42</SPAN></span>
Bhūtha, or demon worship, prevails in South Canara, where the
villages have their bhūtha sthānam or demon shrine.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2853" href="#xd20e2853src" name="xd20e2853">43</SPAN></span>
“Cochin Census Report,” 1901, part i. 25.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2868" href="#xd20e2868src" name="xd20e2868">44</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District,” 1907, i. 329.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2873" href="#xd20e2873src" name="xd20e2873">45</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Anantapur District,” 1905, i. 164.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2878" href="#xd20e2878src" name="xd20e2878">46</SPAN></span>
“Native Life in Travancore,” 1883.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2897" href="#xd20e2897src" name="xd20e2897">47</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Madura District,” 1906, i. 102.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2900" href="#xd20e2900src" name="xd20e2900">48</SPAN></span>
“Mediæval Sinhalese Art,” 1908, 70–75.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2908" href="#xd20e2908src" name="xd20e2908">49</SPAN></span>
Philalethes, “History of Ceylon,” 1817, 163.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2922" href="#xd20e2922src" name="xd20e2922">50</SPAN></span> M. Bapu
Rao, <i>Madras Christian Coll. Mag.</i>, April 1894, xi.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2930" href="#xd20e2930src" name="xd20e2930">51</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Madura District,” 1906, i. 286.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2940" href="#xd20e2940src" name="xd20e2940">52</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the South Arcot District,” 1906, i. 278.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2945" href="#xd20e2945src" name="xd20e2945">53</SPAN></span> F.
Fawcett, <i>Man</i>, 1901, i., No. 29, p. 37.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2951" href="#xd20e2951src" name="xd20e2951">54</SPAN></span>
“Madras Census Report,” 1901, part i. 134.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2960" href="#xd20e2960src" name="xd20e2960">55</SPAN></span>
“Malabar and its Folk,” Madras, 2nd ed., 133.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2963" href="#xd20e2963src" name="xd20e2963">56</SPAN></span> Thula
(scales), purusha (man), dānam (gift).</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2976" href="#xd20e2976src" name="xd20e2976">57</SPAN></span>
<i>See</i> Shungoony Menon, “History of Travancore,” 1878,
58–72.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2983" href="#xd20e2983src" name="xd20e2983">58</SPAN></span>
<i>Madras Diocesan Record</i>, October, 1905.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e2996" href="#xd20e2996src" name="xd20e2996">59</SPAN></span>
“Christianity and Caste,” 1893.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3016" href="#xd20e3016src" name="xd20e3016">60</SPAN></span> Rev. J.
Cain, <i>Madras Christian Coll. Mag.</i>, 1887–8, v. 358.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3022" href="#xd20e3022src" name="xd20e3022">61</SPAN></span> In
Southern India, turmeric (<i>Curcuma</i>) is commonly called saffron
(<i>Crocus</i>).</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3034" href="#xd20e3034src" name="xd20e3034">62</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District,” 1907, i. 75.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3039" href="#xd20e3039src" name="xd20e3039">63</SPAN></span>
<i>Madras Museum Bull.</i>, 1907, v., No. 3, 134.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3050" href="#xd20e3050src" name="xd20e3050">64</SPAN></span>
<i>Ibid.</i>, 171.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3069" href="#xd20e3069src" name="xd20e3069">65</SPAN></span>
“An Indian Olio,” 79–80.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3075" href="#xd20e3075src" name="xd20e3075">66</SPAN></span>
“Gazetteer of the Nilgiris,” 1908, i. 340.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3082" href="#xd20e3082src" name="xd20e3082">67</SPAN></span>
“The Tinnevelly Shānars,” 1849.</p>
<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><SPAN class="noteref" id="xd20e3089" href="#xd20e3089src" name="xd20e3089">68</SPAN></span>
<i>Madras Dioc. Mag.</i>, March, 1903.</p>
<div style="break-after:column;"></div><br />